Up-Gradient Particle Flux driven by Flow-to-Fluctuation

Up-Gradient Particle Flux driven by Flow-to-Fluctuation Up-Gradient Particle Flux driven by Nonlinear Flow-to-Fluctuation Energy Transfer in a cylindrical plasma device Lang Cui Chapter 1 Introduction and Background 1.1 Fusion 1.1.1 Fusion reaction Nuclear fusion is one of the most promising options for generating large amounts of carbon-free energy in the future. Fusion is the process that heats the Sun and all other stars, where atomic nuclei collide together and release energy. To get energy from fusion, gas from a combination of types of hydrogen – deuterium and tritium – is heated to very high temperatures (100 million degrees Celsius). Controlled fusion may be an attractive future energy options. There are several types of fusion reactions. Most involve the isotopes of hydrogen called deuterium and tritium [1]: So far most promising method for fusion achievement is considered to through reaction by Eqn. (1.3) due to the fact that this reaction needs least energy and has largest nuclear cross section. As shown in Figure 1.1, every fusion reaction can provide 17.6 MeV nuclear energy of which 3.5 MeV is carried by ÃŽ ± particles (helium nuclei) and the rest is carried by the neutron. Since both deuterium and tritium nuclei are carrying positive charges, we need to heat deuterium and tritium to a sufficiently high temperature (~ 10 keV) in order that thermal velocities of nuclei are high enough to overcome the Coulomb repulsion force to produce the fusion reaction. In fact, fusion reaction whether or not can be realized is given by the famous Lawson criterion [2]: is the ion density, showing how good the particles are confined; is the energy confinement time, measuring the rate of the system loses energy to the environment. There also exists a minimum value of the energy confinement time defined as ratio of the total energy of the plasma to power loss []: Figure 1‑1 the schematic of deuterium-tritium fusion reaction 1.1.2 Magnetic Confinement There are two ways to achieve the temperatures and pressures necessary for hydrogen fusion to take place: Magnetic confinement uses magnetic and electric fields to heat and squeeze the hydrogen plasma. The most promising device for this is the ‘tokamak, a Russian word for a ring-shaped magnetic chamber. The ITER project in France is using this method. Inertial confinement uses laser beams or ion beams to squeeze and heat the hydrogen plasma. Scientists are studying this experimental approach at the National Ignition Facility of Lawrence Livermore Laboratory in the United States. Moreover, it is practically impossible to attain in the laboratory density levels near the ones in the star-centers. It is more feasible for controlled fusion purposes to work at low gas densities and increase the temperature to values considerably higher than that in the center of the sun. At these high temperatures all matter is in the plasma state, consists of a gas of charged particles that experience electromagnetic interactions and can be confined by a magnetic field of appropriate geometry. As shown in Figure 1.2, the motion of electrically charged particles is constrained by a magnetic field. When a uniform magnetic field is applied the charged particles will follow spiral paths encircling the magnetic lines of force. The motion of the particles across the magnetic field lines is restricted and so is the access to the walls of the container.[] Figure 1‑2 When a single charged particle subject to a force is presented in an externally imposed magnetic field, the charged particle (ion/electron) will gyrate around the magnetic field lines. At the position of the guiding center, the charged particle will drift with a velocity which can be calculated from the fluid momentum equation, . The force can be due to an electric field ( drift), gravitational field, curvature drift ( drift) .etc. when there is a collection of charged particles, the force can also be a mean pressure gradient which can lead the particles to a diamagnetic drift with . The diamagnetic drift depends to the sign of the charge the particles carried, thus we expect to find a diamagnetic current in azimuthal direction and opposing the original magnetic field. 1.2 Drift wave turbulence and transport 1.2.1 Overview of Drift wave turbulence It is known that drift waves result from the interaction between the dynamics perpendicular and parallel to the magnetic field due to the combined effects of spatial gradients, ion inertia, and electron parallel motion. Here â€Å"drift† refers to the diamagnetic drifts (perpendicular to both density gradient and magnetic field) due to dominant pressure gradient with a small finite and . Derivation of drift wave dispersion relation can be found in many text books and review papers [1-3]. The experimental work performed in this dissertation was considered cool collisional plasma. An assumption is often made that , where is the drift wave frequency, and are the ion and electron thermal speed separately. Since drift waves have finite , electrons can move along magnetic field lines establishing a thermodynamic equilibrium among themselves. While the ion motions can be neglected. As a result, Landan damping is negligible. In absent of resonant particles, phase velocity distributions may reach to a fluid description of electrons and ions. We may apply the 2D fluid model to describe the system. Accounting for the fast gyromotion along magnetic field of the electrons for density and velocity , we have where is the electron pressure and denotes the direction parallel to magnetic field. By taking the limit and, a plane wave solution of the potential, we can then obtain the Boltzmann relation for electrons: where and are the equilibrium electron density and temperature, . The schematics showing the physical mechanism of an electron drift wave can be seen in Figure 1.3. where the density perturbation is positive, the potential perturbation is positive. Similarly, where the density perturbation is negative, the potential perturbation is negative. The resulting electric field will cause a drift in the x direction. Since there is a gradient in the x direction, the drift will bring plasma of different density to a fixed point. Along with the quasi-neutrality condition, we can find the drift wave dispersion: We notice that the drift waves travel with the electron diamagnetic drift velocity. Here the density and potential perturbations are in phase with a zero growth rate. Thus the plasma is stable. Figure 1‑3 Physical mechanism of a drift wave The fundamental property of electrostatic plasma turbulence is the drift wave frequency range in the absence of dissipation is often described by the Hasegawa-Mima Equations [4-6]. However, most experimental plasma condition is collisional like ours. Thus we are introducing a collisional drift-wave model described by Hasegawa-Wakatani equations, which derived from the same density continuity equation and electron momentum equation, but includes the electron parallel dissipation and the modifications of ion-neutral drag [4,7]. In a cylindrical geometry such as our machine, this model is written as two coupled dimensionless equations: where = is the â€Å"adiabatic parameter† and is the normalized ion viscosity. We note here the density is normalized with , the potential with , time with , distance with , gyroradius. Here is the wavenumber parallel to magnetic field, is the electron collision frequency. Typically, the plasma is characterized by the ratio between the spatial scale of the collective modes () and the scale of the plasma (). HW model introduces the two main components to describe a weak drift wave turbulence system: linear instability driving mechanism and nonlinear damping for turbulence saturation. For , parallel collisions are negligible thus the drift waves are linearly stable. Eqn. (1.11) and (1.12) will be reduced to the Hasegawa-Mima model: For , this model goes to the hydrodynamic limit and reduces to the 2D Euler fluid equations. Our experiments condition is satisfied with . In the presence of dissipation of the parallel electron motion (electrons can lose momentum to the background plasma as they move parallel to the magnetic field), the corresponding dissipation will cause a finite phase shift between density and potential fluctuations. As a result of the phase shift, the Boltzmann relation is no longer valid with : Here the phase shift is the key for instability. The dispersion relation becomes: where and . By solving for , we obtain As we can see from Eqn. (1.16), the growth rate is always positive for a limited range of wavenumbers. This can be also understood from Fig. 1-3 that the phase shift causes drift velocity outwards where the plasma is already shifted outward. Hence the perturbation grows. The dissipation of parallel electron motion can occur via several different processes such as wave-particle interactions and electron-ion Coulomb collisions. 1.2.2 Particle transport The energy losses observed in magnetic confinement devices are much greater than predicted by neoclassical transport theory and usually attributed to the presence of small-scale plasma turbulence. It is well known that spatial gradients in the plasma lead to collective modes called drift waves, which have wave numbers in the range of the observed density fluctuations. Drift waves in magnetized plasmas can produce various transports such as particle transport, momentum transport and kinetic energy transport. The magnetized plasma will convect around the maximum and minimum of density variations. [1]F.F.Chen, Introduction to plasma physics and controlled fusion Second edition Volume 1: Plasma (Plenum Press, New York, 1984), second edn., Vol. 1. [2]R. H. L. Hans R. Griem, Methods of Experimental Physics, Part A (Academic Press, New York and London, 1970). [3]F. F. Chen, Phys Fluids 8, 1323 (1965). [4]P. H. Diamond, A. Hasegawa, and K. Mima, Plasma Phys Contr F 53 (2011). [5]K. Mima and A. Hasegawa, Phys Fluids 21, 81 (1978). [6]Z. Yan, University of California, San Diego, 2008. [7]N. A. Gondarenko and P. N. Guzdar, Geophys Res Lett 26, 3345 (1999).

Veronica Guerin-the One Who Stood Up

Veronica Guerin-The one who stood up Veronica Guerin (5 July 1958 – 26 June 1996) was an Irish journalist who was murdered on the 26th June 1996, on the Naas Road, Dublin, as a result of her work as a crime journalist specialising in the drug world of Dublin. Guerin was born and brought up in Artane where she lived with her four siblings and her parents, Christopher and Bernadette. She acquired the nickname â€Å"Ronnie† during her childhood and she received her education in the Catholic schools of Dublin's north side. She became an accomplished athlete in camogie, soccer and basketball.Soccer, in fact, remained a lifelong passion of Guerin's; she was a fanatic supporter of England's Manchester United professional soccer team. One of her most prised possessions was a picture of her and the famous United player Eric Cantona, which was taken on a trip to Old Trafford. Guerin married Graham Turley who she had a son Cathal with. She studied accountancy at Trinity College Du blin and on her graduation she was hired by her father at his company. After her father passed away three years after her appointment at the company she left and started a new career in public relations.She started a new firm in 1983 which was run by her for seven years. After leaving the firm she took up journalism, first as a business writer for Dublin's Sunday Business Post and then as a news reporter for the city's Sunday Tribune. Then in 1994, Guerin became an investigative reporter for the Sunday Independent, the largest-circulation weekend newspaper in Ireland. This move signalled not only Guerin’s subsequent rise to somewhat fame in Ireland but also led to the sequence of events that ended in her eventually been murdered.Her murder along with detective Jerry Mc Cabe’s murder three weeks earlier sparked the Irish government and the Irish people into life on tackling the war on drugs head on and without fear. For years she had mounted a high-profile war against I reland's drug barons on the pages of the Sunday Independent. Guerin tackled, without fear and without regard for her own safety, the drug kings of Dublin. The work she was involved in was obviously extremely dangerous and her life was put in danger on a number of occasions In October 1994, Guerin was subjected to her first incident of violence to stem from one of her stories.Two bullets where shot through her house window as she was playing with her son at home. This incident came a month after she had written a newspaper article on the drug baron â€Å"the general† after he was shot dead in his car. The second major incident to arise out of her news reporting was a very serious and life treating one, in January 1995, a masked gunman burst into her home when she answered the door and pointed a handgun at her head but lowered it and shot her in the thigh. Guerin suspected that the gunman was hired to â€Å"hit† her because of an article that she had written about the th eft of ? . 4 million from a supposedly secure depot near Dublin airport. This was the largest cash robbery in Irish history. (Encyclopedia. com) When Guerin was released from hospital after been shot she went along with her husband to every crime boss in Dublin she knew and handed them a letter letting them know that she was unafraid and unwilling to give up the fight on drugs. It was a statement of intent. A security system was installed at her home after the attack and the guards gave her 24 hour escort.They accompanied her where ever she went but Guerin, after a few days, stopped the guards accompanying her, as she felt it hindered her work as she was unable to talk to people and get the information she needed for her articles. (Film: Veronica Guerin) Then in September 1995, Guerin paid a visit to a horse farm owned by the notorious John Gilligan, a known leading player in Dublin’s underworld. She confronted him about how he had amassed such a fortune and good lifestyle wi thout been able to show where he had obtained all the money from.He reacted in a brutal, cowardly and savage way to these allegations by tearing open her shirt while looking for a wire and beating her senseless. Sometime after Gilligan phoned her and threatened her and her son Cathal. He told her he would kill her and harm Cathal if his name was ever mentioned in any news article that she wrote. (Freemedia. com) Guerin was never scared or would never let the drug baron’s sees that she was scared. She insisted that she would not be intimidated by any of them but friends of Guerin did admit after her death that she was fearful of Gilligan for the fact that he had threatened to harm her son.She didn’t let this phase her and she continued her tireless and fearful work and she continued to try and get closer to these drug kingpins. As she once said â€Å"they would find it harder to kill someone they knew†. That statement I feel summarised how she basically felt abou t reporting on such a dangerous topic she knew the danger not only to her life but also to her families lives but she knew she had some sort of protection in the fact that she knew the people she was mostly reporting on and her statement is entirely true they would find it harder to kill someone they knew.In December 1995, Guerin received the International Press Freedom Award from the Committee to Protect Journalists. On June 26, 1996, Guerin was in court in Dublin on a road traffic offence she travelled onto the Naas road and stopped at a set of traffic lights when the court was finished. She was alone in her car when she stopped at the traffic lights and made a call to friend and college, Chris Mulligan, on her phone having previously rung her mother to let her know she had been let off with the traffic offence in court. Then two men pulled up along the right hand side of the car and one of them opened fire.Guerin was shot five times in the neck and chest, killing her instantly. T he men then took off at speed before anyone could react. Her funeral, near Dublin airport was full with mourners, that included Ireland's president, and head of the armed forces; while thousands of others watched the service on television. On July 4, there was a moment of silence in her memory, people everywhere across the country stood quietly and bowed their heads in tribute. People just wanting to pay their respects gathered in front of the offices of the Sunday Independent to leave flowers and sign a condolence book. Encyclopedia. com) As soon as Guerin had been shot dead the guards launched an investigation into her murder. There was no doubt in anyone’s mind that she had been the victim of a â€Å"hit† ordered either by someone she had already written about in her articles or someone she had planned to report on in the near future. It was unsure at the time weather her culprits would be brought to justice as the guards knew it would be a long and pain staking inv estigation. However in October 1996, a man by the name of Paul Ward was charged with the conspiracy to murder Veronica Guerin.He was the first person arrested and charged over the murder but the guards were hopeful he wouldn’t be the last. Most people including the guards believed that Gilligan was behind the â€Å"hit† although this proved very hard to prove. Gilligan left Ireland for Amsterdam the day before Guerin was murdered. Sometime after, Gilligan was caught with half a million in cash trying to board a flight he was unable to explain where the cash had legitimately come from. He claimed he won the vast amount of money gambling but was arrested on charges of trying to launder profits from selling illegal drugs. Encyclopedia. com) Since she was murdered, a number of things have happened that showed she did not die in vain and die for no reason. Since her death journalists who report on dangerous topics have been given better protection. Also after she was murder ed the Irish government held a special meeting to come up with and discuss a way which they would be able to create anti-crime legislation in order to put a huge crack down on drug crime and also to make it easier for the guards to create and implement cases against crime bosses.These new measures forced many of Dublin’s crime bosses to flee the country before the guards had the chance or opportunity to arrest them. Veronica Guerin not only changed the level of drugs on Dublin’s streets, she changed how people reacted to drugs on their streets residents in some of Dublin’s poorest areas demanded change and set up groups that marched the streets and kicked the drug dealers out. After her death the drug crime rate in Ireland fell by 50% the following year. (Freemedia. om) As a result of her murder the government established the Proceeds of Crime Act 1996 and the Criminal Assets Bureau Act 1996, so that assets purchased with money obtained through crime could be se ized by them. This led to the formation of the Criminal Assets Bureau (CAB). Veronica’s murder was seen as an outrage and as then Taoiseach, John Bruton, described it, â€Å"it was an attack on democracy†. (Encyclopedia. com) Charles Bowden, a member of Gilligan’s gang, was arrested along with the other members of the gang that where still in the country following the murder.In an agreement with the Attorney General of Ireland, he agreed to turn state's witness. In doing this he became the first person in history to enter the Republic of Ireland's witness protection programme. A programme that is now very prominent in the Irish legal system. (Encyclopedia. com) Her life and death signalled change in many institutions in Ireland mainly Social and Political. From a social point of view obviously the effect the fall in drug taking and drug crime would of having would have been very positive.A fall of 50% in drug related crime the year after her death symbolised jus t how much of an impact her death had on Dublin’s drug run underworld. Her actions obviously had a symbolic effect on drug users. From a political point of view this is the institution that Guerin’s life and death had the biggest impact on. Her actions as a journalist ultimately led the Irish government to change the Irish constitution they introduced two new acts which led to the formation of CAB. This was a historic moment in Irish history a moment that has played a major role in the way criminals are treated in this country.The fact that one woman’s life could change the Irish constitution through her actions is undoubtedly remarkable it’s just a shame it took her murder to spark the government into action. Her death obviously had a huge effect on a lot of people most notably her husband and son. She was admired by a lot of people for her tireless work on bringing the drugs problem in Dublin onto a national level. A piece from an article written by her work college, Kelly Fincham, summarises her mindset on the problem of drugs in Dublin. Like all mothers, she worried about her child’s future but she also worried that her son would grow up in a crime-infested city as the authorities appeared to be ignoring the drug epidemic. Unlike many people in journalism and indeed Dublin, Veronica felt it was a foolish choice to avoid the problem by isolating yourself from it†. (Irishabroad. com) Guerin’s actions and fearless reporting changed the view on drugs in Ireland forever. Her murder signalled a social change that will forever be prominent in our country.With the establishment of the above acts not only was the criminal justice system changed in this country but the Irish constitution was also changed. Guerin wanted to change people’s lives through her reporting. She had met with young drug addicts and it’s for this reason that she strived to expose the main drug dealers in Dublin. She saw that these à ¢â‚¬Å"drug addicts† didn’t have to live the life they where currently living and that they could change themselves along with other things. Everyone in the Republic of Ireland remembers where they were when they heard Veronica Guerin had been murdered on the Naas Road. Film: Veronica Guerin) Referencing Film: Veronica Guerin. (2003). Directed by Joel Schumacher. Dublin Ireland, (DVD). Website: Encyclopedia. com. (2004) Veronica Guerin. Available at http://www. encyclopedia. com/doc/1G2-3404707176. html Accessed on 5/12/2011 Freemedia. com (2000) Veronica Guerin Ireland, World Press Freedom hero. Available at http://www. freemedia. at/awards/veronica-guerin/ Accessed on 11/12/2011 Irishabroad. com (2009) Remembering the real Veronica Guerin. Available at http://www. irishabroad. com/news/irishinamerica/news/guerin. asp Accessed on 11/12/2011

What were the prevailing physical and social conditions in Pyrmont/Ultimo during the 1950’s?

Pyrmont-Ultimo was once a highly valued area for pre-Colonial Indigenous Australians because of the access to fresh water, fish and other resources. But by the 1950s, the once thriving industrial Pyrmont-Ultimo had fallen into decline. Near deep waterways, the peninsula was a hotspot for industries, manufacturers and shipping companies. The main forms of employment were from these major industries. The area featured industries that were some of the major distributors of flour, milk, wool and sugar in the country, as well as countless wool-stores. The wool-stores were popular businesses in these times. Steep slopes that led to the wool-stores were convenient for business, as the bales of wool would go down the slopes, be treated and inspected, and then sold off out of the factories. Wool stores on the peninsula employed thousands of men. The Ultimo power station was another big industry at the time. The main use of the power station was to supply electricity to the trams that were running throughout Sydney. The Ultimo power station employed hundreds of men and a few women too. The men of the neighbourhood would walk up and down the shipping yards looking for work, trying to make money for their large families. They would also look for work on the railway yards and the mills. Large industries closed and the area remained neglected for nearly forty years, merely a fossil of a once prominent area of industry. By 1954, the Pyrmont-Ultimo population was around 5,000. The area was filled with terraces, built for the working class community. Much of the population lived in these terraces, which were the most popular forms of housing in the area in the 1950s. Due to the area's previously highly dense population, many terraces were built close together, and with some of them reaching up to three stories high. With the construction of the â€Å"Pyrmont 13† passenger terminal, many migrants landed in Australia, bringing not only cultural diversity, but also the eventual social destructions of thousands of newly settled people seeking housing and work, adding on to the already high amount of poor looking for a chance to make a living in the area and provide for their families. The recreation for the people of the Pyrmont-Ultimo region was limited, generally going to one of countless pubs around the area, seeing the local football team play at the park or playing cricket in the streets. After going to work, most men would usually hit the pubs. Artefacts of these times include plaques outside the pubs, some of which read, â€Å"Please Remove Work-Boots Before Entering†. It was believed that owners of the pubs wanted the working class citizens out by as early as possible, with other signs displaying â€Å"Work Clothes Prohibited After 7.P.M†. These signs can be interpreted as an indication that the pubs in Pyrmont-Ultimo wanted more money by attracting the businessmen from the near-by Central Business District (CBD). The Pyrmont-Ultimo environment was generally unhealthy. Countless cases of black lung and cancer were discovered in people from the area, especially in the working-class men who were working and living in these parts. The wool-stores sometimes created many health problems for the workers and other people residing in their homes near them. The Colonial Sugar Refinery (CSR), trains and power stations polluted the air and water in and around the Pyrmont-Ultimo area. Question 2 – Identify and describe the changes that occurred in the Pyrmont/Ultimo area in the period from 1955 to 1975? Significant change took place in the Pyrmont/Ultimo area from 1955 to 1975. The freeway developments of the 1970s physically divided Pyrmont-Ultimo and threatened to destroy all sense of community. One of the first protests was against the demolition of the terrace houses in Fig Street, which were to make way for the North Western freeway. They rebuilt some of the terraces, but they also started building units. A lot the industries moved out west in these times. Pyrmont/Ultimo began to go into Urban Decline and soon into Urban Decay. Changes to industry and development affected housing, employment, as well as the health and leisure of the people. Employment rates dropped dramatically and people were finding it hard to keep a roof over their heads. Many people went elsewhere for recreational purposes, with the large amount of bars going broke, causing them to close down. Many people got depressed when they became unemployed, causing crime rates to rise dramatically. Drugs and alcohol became very common, causing communal bad health levels in the community. Communities gradually started to fall apart, and the area was nothing like what it used to be. The collapse of a once booming society, followed by the collapse of industrial occupation, created a wasteland, causing many people to subsequently move out of the area. Question 3 – Why did these changes occur? What were the determining factors for the changes? These changes occurred because many people were forced to move into other areas when the freeways were getting built and as the industries were beginning to move out west. The industries primarily moved out of the Pyrmont-Ultimo area and out west because they were encouraged by the government to move out into the western districts, which were much affordable than the current locations. Employment rates plummeted as the industries moved out west. Some of the workers moved west so they could keep a job and continue to support their family. Recreation in the area also changed as many people moved away or simply didn't have time anymore, due to the decreasing wages for the jobs that stayed in the area. The only ‘recreational' thing people could now do was to drink their troubles away down at their local pub. People started drinking more regularly because they were becoming depressed, which led to liver damage, other widespread health diseases in the community, and a further increase of poverty in the area. The increase of people drinking made people more hostile and violent. People were also suffering social problems as they either no longer had jobs, or were earning small amounts of money. The community crumbled because people either had to move for work or stay in the area without jobs and therefore no longer afford to live in the Pyrmont-Ultimo area anymore. By the 1960s, the wool-stores moved out of the area to move to new industrial facilities in southwestern Sydney. This marked the fall of the formerly industrious area. During the 1970s, the Pyrmont-Ultimo had become derelict, making it an unpopular residential area. The construction of wool-stores, power stations and factories caused the deconstruction of countless homes and a decrease in population, before the eventual demise of the Pyrmont-Ultimo area (In 1975, the population of Pyrmont-Ultimo was 1800, while in 1955, it was 5000). Question 4 – How did the Pyrmont/Ultimo area change in the 1980's? Explain the factors responsible for these changes? During the 1980s in Pyrmont-Ultimo, new terrace houses were built and abandoned warehouses were transformed into new residential housing facilities. This caused people to start to move back into the area. Casinos replaced wool-stores and power stations as the industries of the future. Derelict buildings were converted into offices and commercial buildings were constructed in the area. Along with these buildings and new offices came greater job opportunities available to the people. In the mid-1980s, the State Government chose to redevelop Darling Harbour as the heart of the 1988 Australian Bicentennial festivals and celebrations. The Convention and Exhibition Centres, The Sydney Aquarium, a major retail shopping complex, the National Maritime Museum, Chinese Gardens, restoration of the Pyrmont Bridge and the development of larger open spaces were constructed in the Darling Harbour area. Rather than sitting in a pub, the new recreational activity was to go to the casino, though a large number of people still enjoyed the atmosphere of the pubs and clubs. The social side of Pyrmont-Ultimo was increasingly getting better. The area was becoming a community again. Health was also becoming getting better, with drug use and alcohol-intakerapidly decreasing. Pyrmont-Ultimo was going through Urban Growth and, subsequently, underwent Urban Renewal. Question 5 – Has the environment and community of Pyrmont/Ultimo benefited from the changes that have occurred since 1950? Justify your answer with reference to primary and secondary data. The housing environment today compared to the 1950s is greater developed. Today, larger units have been built compared to the small terraces of the 1950s, and a now must-have 10% open-space agreement has been created, meaning that 10% of the property must be open-space. The industries in the area are also further advanced nowadays; office blocks and gaming buildings are bigger and better than ever before, as well as some older industries to liven up the mix. Employment rates have greatly increased today than in the 1950s, as many people work in the newly established offices, gaming buildings or recreational buildings near their homes, even though there is great opportunity for people searching for work. Better recreational facilities have also been installed in the Pyrmont-Ultimo community, with casinos, museums, malls, food courts and other shops to go to today, as opposed to the local pub back in the 1950s. Social problems have greatly decreased since the 1950s, and Pyrmont-Ultimo is once again considered to be a great community. Health in Pyrmont/Ultimo is also better, as there is less pollution from factories, power stations and other industries. Although there is still pollution from cars, pollution levels are much less that what they were in the 1950s.

Free Exercise Clause Definition

The Free Exercise Clause is the part of the First Amendment that reads: Congress shall make no law ... prohibiting the free exercise (of religion) ... The Supreme Court has, of course, never interpreted this clause  in a completely literal way. Murder is illegal, for example, regardless of whether it is committed for religious reasons. Interpretations of the Free Exercise Clause   There are two interpretations of the Free Exercise Clause: The first freedoms interpretation  holds that Congress may restrict religious activity only if it has a compelling interest in doing so. This means that Congress may not, for example, ban the hallucinatory drug peyote that is used by some Native  American traditions because it has no compelling interest in doing so.  The nondiscrimination interpretation holds that Congress may restrict religious activity as long as the intent of a law is not to restrict religious activity. Under this interpretation, Congress can ban peyote as long as the law is not specifically written to target a specific religious practice. Interpretation largely  becomes a non-issue when religious practices stay within the confines of the law. The First Amendment clearly protects an American’s right to worship as he chooses when the practices of his religion are in no way illegal. It’s typically not illegal to confine a venomous snake in a cage at a service, for example, provided all wildlife licensing requirements are met. It might be illegal to turn that venomous snake loose among a congregation, resulting in a worshiper being struck and subsequently dying. The question becomes whether the worship leader who turned the snake loose is guilty of murder or – more likely – manslaughter. An argument can be made that the leader is protected by the First Amendment because he did not set the snake free with the intent of harming the worshiper but rather as part of a religious rite.   Challenges to the Free Exercise Clause   The First Amendment has been challenged numerous times over the years when crimes are unintentionally committed in the course of practicing religious beliefs.  Employment Division v. Smith, decided by the Supreme Court in 1990, remains one of the more noteworthy examples of a bona fide legal challenge to the first freedoms interpretation of the law. The court had previously held that the burden of proof fell to the governing entity to establish that it had a compelling interest in prosecuting even if it meant infringing upon the individual’s religious practices. Smith changed that premise when the court ruled that a governing entity does not have that burden if the law that was violated applies to the general population and does not target the faith or its practitioner per se.   This decision was tested three years later in a 1993 decision in Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah. This time, it held that because the law in question – one that involved animal sacrifice – specifically affected the rites of a certain religion, the government did indeed have to establish a compelling interest.